Chand Bahar, Tek, Bahar-i Ajam (compiled 1739) (Lucknow, 1916)Google Scholar, s.v. 197198Google Scholar. In whose heart the Supreme God dwelt, is numbered among the saints. This resulted in lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles, giving them a price advantage in global markets. He crushed the ranas forces at Khanua, near Fatehpur Sikri (March 1527), once again by means of the skillful positioning of troops. This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology, and the fact that the Mughal Empire governed a non-Muslim majority. The Mughal Empire was run by an emperor who had absolute authority. A Marxist school (led by Irfan Habib and based at Aligarh Muslim University) emphasises excessive exploitation of the peasantry by the rich, which stripped away the will and the means to support the regime. But some of the educated nevertheless held a different view.

[76] In a religious interpretation, some scholars argue that the Hindu powers revolted against the rule of a Muslim dynasty. [43] India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and economic development.

General Building, Mughal government in the pargana consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector. However, the information we do have, in Persian (then the official language), regional, or local languages, and in European languages (from missionaries, merchants, and travellers), enables us to explore the major forms of labour that prevailed in India during the late sixteenth century and the entire seventeenth century, and to trace the perceptions of the social status of the labourer that were held by the superior classes and by the labourers themselves. Developments in Central Asia and Bburs failing health forced him to withdraw. One such court was that of the qadi. The Mughals were a Muslim dynasty who ruled over a majority Hindu population. The use of mines and counter-mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and Jahangir. 2) Babur [86][87][88][89], In 1613, Jahangir issued a sanguinary order for the extirpation of the race of the Kolis who were notorious robbers and plunders living in the most inaccessible parts of Gujarat.

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Rural wage rates were depressed owing to the caste system and the village community mechanism. [206][207] In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy, where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques. (Karachi, 1970), II, pp. WebTHE WORLD OF LABOUR IN MUGHAL INDIA (C. 1500-1750) Shireen Moosvi The study of labour history of pre-colonial India is still in its infancy. As to forms of labour, one may well describe conditions as those of an imperfect market. Martin, Montgomery (ed. [173], Cities acted as markets for the sale of goods, and provided homes for a variety of merchants, traders, shopkeepers, artisans, moneylenders, weavers, craftspeople, officials, and religious figures. [10] For some two hundred years, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus river basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to the highlands of present-day Assam and Bangladesh in the east, and the uplands of the Deccan Plateau in South India. The individual abilities and achievements of the early MughalsBbur, Humyn, and later Akbarlargely charted this course. [78], Jeffrey G. Williamson has argued that the Indian economy went through deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire, with British rule later causing further deindustrialization. [34][197][198] By the time he was invited by Lodi governor of Lahore, Daulat Khan, to support his rebellion against Lodi Sultan Ibrahim Khan, Babur was familiar with gunpowder firearms and field artillery, and a method for deploying them. [151] The production of cotton, which may have largely been spun in the villages and then taken to towns in the form of yarn to be woven into cloth textiles, was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. 156158Google Scholar. Slave labour was restricted largely to domestic service. Of the four premier artisanal religious leaders mentioned in these verses, we have compositions included in two massive collections compiled in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, namely the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh scripture, and the Sarbangi of Rajabdas, of the Dadupanthi sect.Footnote 51 Owing to their early date, they enable us to capture the original compositions as they circulated in their earliest form among the common people in the various spoken languages, including Marathi, Awadhi, Braj, and Panjabi. Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and Muslim holy places during military invasions. [149] Indian textiles dominated the Indian Ocean trade for centuries, were sold in the Atlantic Ocean trade, and had a 38% share of the West African trade in the early 18th century, while Indian calicos were a major force in Europe, and Indian textiles accounted for 20% of total English trade with Southern Europe in the early 18th century.

In his verses the satirist Jafar Zatalli (1710) suggested that a small household could still comprise the master, his wife, a male slave, and a slave girl.Footnote 30, The practice of forced labour (begar) was generally considered unethical, though it was widely prevalent in relation to certain occasional tasks, such as baggage conveyance, imposed on specific lowly rural castes or communities. Became distinguished, and in the company of the saints obtained a sight of God.

karkhana. In general, in return for their services they were allowed to hold small pieces of land tax free (the tax which was usually borne by the village as a whole), and/or to claim modest shares in the grain harvest, given to them by each peasant at harvest time. Although the Mughal empire was created and sustained by military warfare,[16][17][18] it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule; rather it equalized and placated them through new administrative practices[19][20] and diverse ruling elites, leading to more efficient, centralised, and standardized rule. Abu'l-Fazl, , Akbarnama (c.1600), Ahmad Ali and Abdur Rahim (eds), 3 vols (Calcutta, 18731887), III, pp. Habib, Irfan, Three Early Farmans of Akbar, in Favour of Ramdas, the Master Dyer, in idem (ed. But in construction work carried out under imperial aegis, piece rates are also specified. Before the battle, Babur sought divine favour by abjuring liquor, breaking the wine vessels and pouring the wine down a well. It is estimated that India's urban population had grown to about 15 per cent of the total population,Footnote 1 put at 145 million, which would mean an urban population of nearly 22 million. Apart from domestic servants in the imperial household and in those of nobles (the latter to be included in the state apparatus for the present purpose), there were cavalrymen and clerks, employed in large numbers, usually on monthly salaries.

South Asia had an important place in this system.

India from the Paleolithic Period to the decline of the Indus civilization, The earliest agriculturalists and pastoralists, Neolithic agriculture in the Indus valley and Baluchistan, Extent and chronology of Early Harappan culture, Language and scripts, weights and measures, The Post-Urban Period in northwestern India, The late 2nd millennium and the reemergence of urbanism, Peninsular India in the aftermath of the Indus civilization (c. 20001000, The development of Indian civilization from c. 1500, Traditional approaches to Indian historiography, The beginning of the historical period, c. 500150, North India under Muslim hegemony, c. 12001526, Taxation and distribution of revenue resources, The Muslim states of southern India, c. 13501680, Extension and consolidation of the empire, Central, provincial, and local government, Organization of the nobility and the army, The emperor, the nobility, and the provinces, The Afghan-Maratha struggle for northern India, Political and economic decentralization during the Mughal decline, The Afghan factor in northern India, 174772, Cultural aspects of the late precolonial order, India and European expansion, c. 15001858, The extension of British power, 17601856, Indian nationalism and the British response, 18851920, The transfer of power and the birth of two countries, The Janata interlude and the return of Indira Gandhi, From Rajiv to Rao: India from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, V.P. hasContentIssue true, The place of labouring classes in society: reality and perception, Self-perception of artisans and labourers, Copyright Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis 2011. 59. 24. India was at the center of a global market for goods in which Muslims, from many backgrounds and regions, were the principal dealers. 487488. [45] Processed products included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter.

Direct link to Kat's post How does the Mughal empir, Posted a year ago.

Ovington, J., A Voyage to Surat in the Year 1689, H.G. According to Dyson urbanization of Mughal empire was less than 9%. Soon he was literally a fugitive, in the midst of both an internecine fight among the Timurids and a struggle between them and the rising Uzbeks over the erstwhile Timurid empire in the region. For an interesting discussion of this term and the historicity of the form of labour it represents, see A large number of them Koli chiefs slaughtered and the rest hunted to their mountains and deserts. This battle was one of the most decisive and historic battles in Indian history, as it sealed the fate of Northern India for the next two centuries. He defeated Babar in the Battle of Bayana.

Such officials included the kotwal (local police), the faujdar (an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers), and the most powerful, the subahdar (provincial governor). This is a category of semi-commodified productive labour which is, perhaps, largely confined to India: the particular term used here was given to it by Max Weber.Footnote 19 This was a system in which the occupational fixity of the caste system and a semi-hierarchical village organization (conventionally called the village community) created a system of set obligations and rights under which the so-called rural servants (balutas), for instance, worked and obtained their livelihood. 8889Google Scholar. Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. That is why I say the cotton boll is the most beautiful flower.

Birbal said, Your Majesty, from the cotton boll comes the fine fabric prized by merchants across the seas that has made your empire famous throughout the world. Figure 2 Mughal School, mid-seventeenth century.Miniature in the Leningrad Branch of the Institute of the Peoples of Asia. This was larger than the entire urban population in Europe at the time, and even a century later in 1700, the urban population of England, Scotland and Wales did not exceed 13% of its total population,[164] while British India had an urban population that was under 13% of its total population in 1800 and 9% in 1881, a decline from the earlier Mughal era.

300310Google Scholar. (Cuttack, 1922), p. 201Google Scholar. After defeating the Koli chieftain, the Koli country was plundered by mughal troops. This meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. 169 heads of such Koli chiefs killed in battle by Nurulla Ibrahim, commander of 'Bollodo'.

The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II (17591806) made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline but ultimately had to seek the protection of the Emir of Afghanistan, Ahmed Shah Abdali, which led to the Third Battle of Panipat between the Maratha Empire and the Afghans (led by Abdali) in 1761. Dalla Valle, Pietro, Travels in India, E. Grey (transl.) "The Urdu language reforms." Jean-Nol Biraben, 1980, "An Essay Concerning Mankind's Evolution", Population, Selected Papers, Vol.

Direct link to anayhapani's post What groups or classes of, Posted 5 months ago. [110] Sometimes this was necessitated by political and military demands, but shifts also occurred for ideological reasons (for example, Akbar's establishment of Fatehpur Sikri), or even simply because the cost of establishing a new capital was marginal.

Historians have offered numerous explanations for the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720, after a century of growth and prosperity. WebThe fifth region is South Asia, represented by India.

Bburs brief tenure in Hindustan, spent in wars and in his preoccupation with northwest and Central Asia, did not give him enough time to consolidate fully his conquests in India.

My estimates of Mughal currency output show the following peak annual averages in tons of silver: 246.29 tons (15861595); 290.70 tons (15961605); 213.12 tons (16261635); and 188.39 tons (16961705).Footnote 2 We should also consider the copper coinage, which in the seventeenth century served as fractional money. As agricultural lands expanded in the 17th and 18th centuries, Mughal economic growth boomed, and the economy came to be worth hundreds of millions of rupees per year. The Mughal economy supplemented agricultural output with international trade. India had for centuries been the center of Indian Ocean trade. Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.

During the eighteenth century, partly because of the influx of New World crops like [193] Persian had a profound impact on the languages of South Asia; one such language, today known as Urdu, developed in the imperial capital of Delhi in the late Mughal era. The British East India Company later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s, leading to significant improvements in seaworthiness and navigation for European ships during the Industrial Revolution. [131] Similarly, Sivramkrishna analyzed agricultural surveys conducted in Mysore by Francis Buchanan during 18001801, arrived at estimates using a "subsistence basket" that aggregated millet income could be almost five times subsistence level, while corresponding rice income was three times that much. [citation needed] But, according to Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, the Mughal Emperor continued to be the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Many monuments were built during the Mughal era by the Muslim emperors, especially Shah Jahan, including the Taj Mahala UNESCO World Heritage Site considered "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage",[30] attracting 78 million unique visitors a year. 40. Used with permission. ), The History, Antiquities, Topography and Statistics of Eastern India, 3 vols (London, 1838)Google Scholar. He freed all the imperial slaves, who exceeded hundreds and thousands.Footnote 29 But domestic slaves and concubines remained an essential feature not only of the aristocratic household but also of the homes of lower officials and even ordinary people. Partly, this is due to the fact Sarnaik applied for help from Shivaji but shivaji was unable to help kolis because of their political matters and sarnaik was refused. When he probably retired the next year, he was granted 21.73 hectares of land in the same locality as an in'am (pension grant). Babur had employed Ottoman expert Ustad Ali Quli, who showed Babur the standard Ottoman formationartillery and firearm-equipped infantry protected by wagons in the centre and the mounted archers on both wings. It directed the local revenue collector to make Darayya repay the loan and to take him to the local qazi (judge) to extract an undertaking not to harass Ramdas again.Footnote 41. One can see from a Mughal painting by the famous artist Bichitr (fl.1630) how they must have been sung out to the poorest of the poor (Figure 3). The Rajputs under Rana Sanga of Mewar threatened to revive their power in northern India. By the fifteenth century, Indians had taken advantage of growing global markets to expand textile production and distribution. Painters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, and carpenters are explicitly classed among Shudras. The Mughal Empire was an Indo-Islamic power that ruled a large portion of the Indian subcontinent which began in 1526 and ended in the mid-19th century. They had bam-boo rods, a rocket-body lashed to the rod, and iron points. The imperial centre, in fact, came to be controlled by the regions. High demand for these items had attracted traders from as far as China in the East and Persia in the West.

After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in Delhi. It is obvious that the caste system would not have established itself and functioned so successfully had the lower castes and the outcastes to a large extent not accepted it as representing a divinely ordained institution. "The Mughals Strike Twice".

[43], Akbar (reigned 15561605) was born Jalal-ud-din Muhammad[48] in the Rajput Umarkot Fort,[49] to Humayun and his wife Hamida Banu Begum, a Persian princess. [98] after this, Jawan Mard Khan Babi who was Governor of Petlad ordered against rebellious Kolis of Balor, probably Bhtod about fifteen miles east of Bharuch, but Jawan Marad Khan was killed by a man of Koli tribe, and in revenge for his death the town of Balor was plundered. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile production, created great wealth. What they did challenge was the status assigned to the artisans and workers on the basis of the pervading concept of caste and social hierarchy. In 1771, the Marathas recaptured Delhi from Afghan control and in 1784 they officially became the protectors of the emperor in Delhi,[72] a state of affairs that continued until the Second Anglo-Maratha War. (e) Chattel slaves used in production for the market: Although slave artisans were known in the period of the Delhi Sultanate (the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries), by the time of the Mughal period such slaves are no longer mentioned. This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as a central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context. Apart from the cloth printer, Namdev (c.1400) of Maharashtra, a major figure in this movement was Kabir, a weaver from the city of Banaras (Varanasi) in Uttar Pradesh, who lived around 1500. 47.

21. The Koli rebellion shook Aurangzeb. A notable representative of Brahmanical orthodoxy, Tulsidas (fl.1570), author of a very popular version of the religious epic Ramcharitmanas, noted as an astonishing phenomenon of his day that low-caste people such as oilmen, potters, untouchables (svapachas), fishermen, watchmen, and distillers simply shave their heads and turn into mendicants, at the loss of their wife or household goods.Footnote 48 Their one act of defiance led to others. [92] Between 1632 and 1635, four viceroys were appointed due to they could not manage the Koli activities well.

He encouraged conversion to Islam, reinstated the jizya on non-Muslims, and compiled the Fatawa 'Alamgiri, a collection of Islamic law. Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works. They were both self-employed and employers.Footnote 10 Among artisans, we learn of goldsmiths, who employed assistant workmen in their karkhanas,Footnote 11 but I have found no reference to other artisans employing paid assistants. Centralised imperial rule that consolidated the smaller polities of South Asia. Thereafter, the British East India Company became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi. Their position as free-market operators was, it is true, often modified when they accepted advances (dadani) from merchants and committed themselves either to work for them alone, or to supply them their products at fixed prices and on a preferential basis.Footnote 9. The study of the labour history of pre-colonial India is still in its infancy. Painting of the Mughal emperor seated on a grand, golden throne adorned with flowers and peacocks. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250tons annually, compared with 23,061tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771. Quite striking surely is the fact that men of religion are not even considered.

Bernier, Francois, Travels in the Mogul Empire 165668, A. Constable (transl.) He hath woven the warp of the whole world.Footnote 52 To the earlier Namdev, the cloth printer, God could be a carpenter: My Carpenter pervadeth all things; My Carpenter is the support of the soul.Footnote 53 He also sees Him as a potter who has fashioned the world.Footnote 54.

[9] Around 80% of Mughal India's imports were bullion, mostly silver,[126] with major sources of imported bullion including the New World and Japan,[125] which in turn imported large quantities of textiles and silk from the Bengal Subah province. 13. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne",[43] as figureheads under the rule of a brotherhood of nobles belonging to an Indian Muslim caste known as the Sadaat-e-Bara, whose leaders, the Sayyid Brothers, became the de-facto sovereigns of the empire. But it was the British who emerged dominant. On the contrary, Abu'l-Fazl ascribes a statement to Akbar that the superintendents should be vigilant that no one abandons his profession at his own will; A'in Akbari, II, p. 244. That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish a highly efficient governance structure.

Sain, barber and village drudge, well known in every house. Published online by Cambridge University Press: Reproduced from Habib, Agrarian System. Pelsaert, , Remonstrantie, p. 62Google Scholar. [94], In 1719, Kolis of Mahi River were most rebellious against Mughal rule and plundering the villages, Mihir Ali Khan who was acting as Viceroy of Gujarat at the place of Ajit Singh of Marwar, marched against Koli rebels of Mahi who were committing piracy against muslims and subdued them. There were three international systems in early modern Eurasia (~15001750): Europe, East Asia, and Islamicate Asia. Direct link to bateda04's post What is the relative loca, Lesson 4: Expanding to a Global Scale | 1.3. what was the political system of this empire?

In Merta, the sixth and largest town, there seems to be a hierarchical arrangement. [43] Paternally, Babur belonged to the Turkicized Barlas tribe of Mongol origin.

WebSlaves were put to work growing cash crops (sugar, tobacco, cotton, and coffee), the profits of which ultimately benefited European powers Europeans then sold manufactured goods As far as we can judge, the division of labour by gender was practically all pervasive, even within the same occupation (women were spinners, men weavers; men were bricklayers, women brick carriers).Footnote 33 There appears to have been little competition between the two sexes for the same kind of job.

The Mughal emperors ( Urdu: , Persian: , romanized : Shhanshhn-e-Hindustan) were the supreme heads of state of the Mughal Empire on the Indian subcontinent, mainly corresponding to the modern countries of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh. Khidmatgars (personal attendants) of an officer of moderate rank, Anand Ram Mukhlis (c.1745), also worked as cooks.Footnote 25 The treatment meted out to servants often depended on the temper of the master. Abdu'l Qadir Badauni, writing in 1598, quotes a saying of the Prophet to the effect that God holds as His enemy anyone who takes work but does not pay the wage for it; Najatu'r Rashid, S. Moinul Haq (ed.) 46. du Jarric, Pierre, Akbar and the Jesuits, C.H. [43] Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the later restored Mughal Empire. Black, Jeremy. What external challenges did the Mughal emperors face in 1750?

135158Google Scholar.

Hostname: page-component-b7cdf9bb7-vgjm5 By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
The middling professions are divided into (1) essential, such as agriculture; (2) those that one can live without, such as cloth dyeing; (3) basic (basit) crafts, such as carpentry and iron or metal work; and (4) secondary (murakkab) crafts, such as weighing and tailoring.Footnote 37. Singhs coalitionits brief rise and fall, Congress government of P.V. Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. For a detailed account and full references see Moosvi, Economy of the Mughal Empire, pp. Which is an external challenge the Mughal emperors faced in 1750? He was against Mughal Rule, Made Uparkot Fort his centre. Like in all other land empires during this period, the monarch made the law.

See These included various kinds of cotton textiles (calico, dyed and printed), silk fabrics, indigo, and damascened steel. The Mughal empire lasted for more than 300 years and covered much of Although by the early 18th century the regions had begun to reassert their independent positions, Mughal manners and ideals outlasted imperial central authority. [140] Bengal was later described as the Paradise of Nations by Mughal emperors.

[citation needed] He created a new ruling elite loyal to him, implemented a modern administration, and encouraged cultural developments. The popularity that the artisanal preachers compositions gained caused bitter hostility from a section of the educated classes. [125], Despite India having its own stocks of gold and silver, the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own, but mostly minted coins from imported bullion, as a result of the empire's strong export-driven economy, with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of precious metals into India.

It is therefore particularly noteworthy that from the late fifteenth century we begin to witness artisans and labourers who assumed the garb of religious preachers and asserted the dignity of their profession in the eyes of God. In turn, the Mysorean rockets were the basis for the Congreve rockets, which Britain deployed in the Napoleonic Wars against France and the War of 1812 against the United States. Rural wage rates were depressed owing to the caste system and the village community mechanism. The 16th and 17th centuries saw a synthesis between Islamic astronomy and Indian astronomy, where Islamic observational techniques and instruments were combined with Indian computational techniques. WebThe communalists, Muslim and Hindus take off from the British in interpreting the History as a fight between Hindus and Muslims, and twisting it in a way where their own selves are shown to be the real owners of the land and also victims of the other community. Direct link to m9803038's post When was this article pub, Posted a year ago. [137] However, in a system where wealth was hoarded by elites, wages were depressed for manual labour.

The Mughals themselves claimed ultimate descent from Mongol Empire founder Genghis Khan. Territories were often rearranged and reconstituted for better administrative control, and to extend cultivation. The economic activities of the Mughal empire derived from the basic urges which created and sustained it as well as the structure of polity devised for their fulfilment. The Company then began to expand beyond Bengal.

[93] The next viceroy sa Tarkhn carried out financial reforms. Studies 26 (2011): 97. The introduction of sophisticated Iranian-style waterworks and horticulture through, Baoli Ghaus Ali Shah in Farrukhnagar, India.

You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist.

Qatil, Mirza, Haft Tamasha (Lucknow, 1875), pp. Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The Afghans fought bravely, but they had never faced new artillery, and their frontal attack was no answer to Bburs superior arrangement of the battle line. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status. Commodified labour was thus practically universal. (Rampur, 1946), pp. 496497; II, pp. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators begun to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco. [153], Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry, which was also largely centred in the Bengal province. In censuses of certain towns of the region of Marwar (western Rajasthan) given in the singularly interesting statistical work, Munhta Nainsi's Marwar ra Parganan ri Vigat, compiled in 1664, the total number of houses is recorded.

43. The domestic service sector in Mughal India was exceedingly large.

[161][pageneeded]. Compared to food per-capita, expenditure on clothing was much smaller though, so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 19011910. In this list a clear preference is given to the intellectual classes (Brahmans and Kayasths), followed by soldiers, and only below them come the artisans, menial workers, and merchants, the last three groups being mixed up without any seeming care for hierarchy. [138] In Mughal India, there was a generally tolerant attitude towards manual labourers, with some religious cults in northern India proudly asserting a high status for manual labour. The psychological interpretations emphasise depravity in high places, excessive luxury, and increasingly narrow views that left the rulers unprepared for an external challenge. Feature Flags: {

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